The Conquest of Central Asia (1857-1876)

Following the defeat of the Crimean War the Russian army found itself desperately in need of modernization and reform.  The failure to adapt to the changing technologies and the adherence to outdated tactical doctrine illustrated how much war had changed since the days of Napoleon.  War over great distances with huge masses of men had become a technological and industrial activity more than ever before.  The Russian military leadership realized that they would have to a great deal in order to catch up with a rapidly industrializing Europe.

Leading the drive for reform would be Defense Minister Miliutin.  Under his leadership the army would receive a new officer education system, modern weapons, and a more flexible reserve system.  The navy would also begin to introduce its first ironclad vessels as well.  Against this backdrop of sweeping change the Russian army also found itself suppressing internal rebellions in the Caucasus and Poland, as well as fighting little known campaigns against the Turkmen in wars of expansion in Central Asia.

The defeat also made the Russian political class realize that the strict authoritarian policies of Tsar Nicholas I had to be liberalized.  Serfdom, an institution whose demise had been ineffectively debated since the beginning of the century, would have to come to an end.  Only in this way would Russia be able to adapt to the modern industrial age and begin to allow a working class to form.  The Edict of Emancipation that brought an end to the medieval institution finally came in 1861.  This would have the practical effect of allowing the peasant class to become more mobile, engage in industry, and even start businesses.  Several years later the justice system was liberalized.  Local councils known as zemstvos were formed which allowed the people to determine their own affairs in city matters.  Other reforms included improvements in the postal system - which saw the first Imperial stamps issued during this period.

Russian music and literature would continue to flourish.  Turgenev would bring the Russian novel to new heights (and a new appreciation by European critics) with 'Fathers and Children'.  Dostoyevsky would be quite prolific during this period publishing 'Crime and Punishment' and 'Letters from the Underworld'.  The famous 'War and Peace' by Tolstoy would be published in 1869.  Russian music also advanced to the forefront of European society as the composers Balakierev, Cui, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Mussorgsky developed a school of true Russian music.  They would soon be known in Europe as 'The Mighty Handful' for their powerful influence on art music.  Likewise, famous scientists such as Pavel Yablochkov and Dimitri Mendeleyev would made great contributions in the fields of engineering and chemistry.

Despite the apparent advances of society, the reforms of the age were not sweeping enough for many who formed revolutionary societies.  The 'to the People' movement and the 'land and freedom party' would advocate for greater changes that gave the first hints at what was to come in 1917.  In 1872 Karl Marx book 'Das Kapital' was published in Russian for the first time.  It would further inflame revolutionaries who opposed the authoritarian regime that the Tsar represented.